sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 135        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 138        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 139        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 141        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 142        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 143        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 144        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 145        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 146        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 147        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 148        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 149        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 150        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 151        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 153        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 154        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 155        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 156        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 157        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 158        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 159        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 160        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 161        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 162        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 163        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 164        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 165        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 166        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 169        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 173        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 175        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 177            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 178        ),
 179        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 181        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 183        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 184        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 185        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 187        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 188        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 189        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 190        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 192        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 193        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 195        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 196        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 197        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 198        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 199        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 200        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 201        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 202        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 203        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 205        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 206        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 207        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 209        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 210        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 211        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 212        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 213        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 214    }
 215
 216    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 217    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 218    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 219    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 220
 221    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 222    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 223    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 224
 225    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 226    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 227
 228    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 229    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 230
 231    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 232    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 233
 234    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 235    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 236
 237    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 238    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 241    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 242
 243    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 244    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 245
 246    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 247    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 248
 249    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 250    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 251
 252    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 253    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 254
 255    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 256    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 257
 258    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 259    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 260
 261    # Whether join hints should be generated
 262    JOIN_HINTS = True
 263
 264    # Whether table hints should be generated
 265    TABLE_HINTS = True
 266
 267    # Whether query hints should be generated
 268    QUERY_HINTS = True
 269
 270    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 271    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 272
 273    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 274    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 275
 276    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 277    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 278
 279    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 280    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 281
 282    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 283    RETURNING_END = True
 284
 285    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 286    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 287
 288    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 289    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 290
 291    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 292    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 293
 294    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 295    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 296
 297    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 298    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 299    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 300    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 301
 302    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 303    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 304
 305    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 306    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 307
 308    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 309    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 310
 311    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 312    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 313
 314    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 315    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 316
 317    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 318    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 319
 320    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 321    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 322
 323    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 324    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 325
 326    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 327    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 328
 329    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 330    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 331
 332    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 333    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 334
 335    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 336    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 337
 338    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 339    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 340
 341    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 342    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 343
 344    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 345    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 346
 347    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 348    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 349
 350    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 351    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 352
 353    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 354    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 355
 356    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 357    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 358
 359    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 360    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 361
 362    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 363    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 364
 365    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 366    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 367
 368    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 369    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 370
 371    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 372    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 373
 374    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 375    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 376
 377    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 378    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 379    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 380
 381    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 382    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 383
 384    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 385    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 386
 387    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 388    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 389
 390    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 391    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 392
 393    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 394    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 395
 396    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 397    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 398
 399    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 400    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 401    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 402    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 403
 404    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 405    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 406
 407    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 408    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 409
 410    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 411    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 412
 413    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 414    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 415
 416    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 417    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 418
 419    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 420    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 421
 422    # The HEX function name
 423    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 424
 425    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 426    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 427
 428    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 429    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 430
 431    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 432    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 433
 434    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 435    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 436
 437    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 438    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 439
 440    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 441    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 442
 443    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 444    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 445
 446    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 447    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 448
 449    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 450    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 451
 452    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 453    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 454
 455    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 456    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 457
 458    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 459    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 460    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 461    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 462    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 463
 464    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 465        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 466        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 467        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 468        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 469        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 470        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 471        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 472        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 473        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 474        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 475        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 476        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 477        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 478    }
 479
 480    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 481        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 482        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 483        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 484        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 485        "DAYS": "DAY",
 486        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 487        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 488        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 489        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 490    }
 491
 492    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 493        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 494        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 495        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 496        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 497            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 498            if e.args.get("windows")
 499            else ""
 500        ),
 501        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 502    }
 503
 504    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 505
 506    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 507
 508    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 509    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 510
 511    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 512
 513    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 514        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 520        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 522        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 529        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 531        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 534        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 538        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 541        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 542        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 543        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 544        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 545        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 546        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 551        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 552        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 557        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 558        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 560        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 561        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 563        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 566        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 569        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 577        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 582        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 583        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 584        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 585        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 588        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 591        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 593        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 594        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 596        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 597        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 599        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 600        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 601        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 602        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 603        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 604        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 605        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 606        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 607    }
 608
 609    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 610    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 611
 612    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 613    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 614        exp.Command,
 615        exp.Create,
 616        exp.Describe,
 617        exp.Delete,
 618        exp.Drop,
 619        exp.From,
 620        exp.Insert,
 621        exp.Join,
 622        exp.MultitableInserts,
 623        exp.Select,
 624        exp.SetOperation,
 625        exp.Update,
 626        exp.Where,
 627        exp.With,
 628    )
 629
 630    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 631    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 632        exp.Binary,
 633        exp.SetOperation,
 634    )
 635
 636    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 637    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 638        exp.Column,
 639        exp.Literal,
 640        exp.Neg,
 641        exp.Paren,
 642    )
 643
 644    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 645        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 646        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 647        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 648        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 649    }
 650
 651    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 652    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 653
 654    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 655
 656    __slots__ = (
 657        "pretty",
 658        "identify",
 659        "normalize",
 660        "pad",
 661        "_indent",
 662        "normalize_functions",
 663        "unsupported_level",
 664        "max_unsupported",
 665        "leading_comma",
 666        "max_text_width",
 667        "comments",
 668        "dialect",
 669        "unsupported_messages",
 670        "_escaped_quote_end",
 671        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 672        "_next_name",
 673        "_identifier_start",
 674        "_identifier_end",
 675        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 676    )
 677
 678    def __init__(
 679        self,
 680        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 681        identify: str | bool = False,
 682        normalize: bool = False,
 683        pad: int = 2,
 684        indent: int = 2,
 685        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 686        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 687        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 688        leading_comma: bool = False,
 689        max_text_width: int = 80,
 690        comments: bool = True,
 691        dialect: DialectType = None,
 692    ):
 693        import sqlglot
 694        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 695
 696        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 697        self.identify = identify
 698        self.normalize = normalize
 699        self.pad = pad
 700        self._indent = indent
 701        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 702        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 703        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 704        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 705        self.comments = comments
 706        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 707
 708        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 709        self.normalize_functions = (
 710            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 711        )
 712
 713        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 714        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 715            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 716        )
 717        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 718
 719        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 720
 721        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 722        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 723
 724        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 725
 726    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 727        """
 728        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 729
 730        Args:
 731            expression: The syntax tree.
 732            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 733                it is safer to copy.
 734
 735        Returns:
 736            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 737        """
 738        if copy:
 739            expression = expression.copy()
 740
 741        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 742
 743        self.unsupported_messages = []
 744        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 745
 746        if self.pretty:
 747            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 748
 749        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 750            return sql
 751
 752        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 753            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 754                logger.warning(msg)
 755        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 756            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 757
 758        return sql
 759
 760    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 761        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 762        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 763
 764        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 765            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 766
 767            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 768
 769        return expression
 770
 771    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 772        if (
 773            not expression.parent
 774            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 775            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 776        ):
 777            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 778
 779            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 780        return expression
 781
 782    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 783        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 784            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 785        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 786
 787    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 788        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 789
 790    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 791        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 792
 793    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 794        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 795        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 796        return comment
 797
 798    def maybe_comment(
 799        self,
 800        sql: str,
 801        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 802        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 803        separated: bool = False,
 804    ) -> str:
 805        comments = (
 806            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 807            if self.comments
 808            else None
 809        )
 810
 811        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 812            return sql
 813
 814        comments_sql = " ".join(
 815            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 816        )
 817
 818        if not comments_sql:
 819            return sql
 820
 821        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 822
 823        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 824            return (
 825                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 826                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 827                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 828            )
 829
 830        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 831
 832    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 833        this_sql = (
 834            self.sql(expression)
 835            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 836            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 837        )
 838        if not this_sql:
 839            return "()"
 840
 841        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 842        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 843
 844    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 845        original = self.identify
 846        self.identify = False
 847        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 848        self.identify = original
 849        return result
 850
 851    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 852        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 853            return name.upper()
 854        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 855            return name.lower()
 856        return name
 857
 858    def indent(
 859        self,
 860        sql: str,
 861        level: int = 0,
 862        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 863        skip_first: bool = False,
 864        skip_last: bool = False,
 865    ) -> str:
 866        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 867            return sql
 868
 869        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 870        lines = sql.split("\n")
 871
 872        return "\n".join(
 873            (
 874                line
 875                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 876                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 877            )
 878            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 879        )
 880
 881    def sql(
 882        self,
 883        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 884        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 885        comment: bool = True,
 886    ) -> str:
 887        if not expression:
 888            return ""
 889
 890        if isinstance(expression, str):
 891            return expression
 892
 893        if key:
 894            value = expression.args.get(key)
 895            if value:
 896                return self.sql(value)
 897            return ""
 898
 899        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 900
 901        if callable(transform):
 902            sql = transform(self, expression)
 903        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 904            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 905
 906            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 907                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 908            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 909                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 910            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 911                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 912            else:
 913                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 914        else:
 915            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 916
 917        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 918
 919    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 920        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 921        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 922        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 923
 924    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 925        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 926        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 927        options = expression.args.get("options")
 928        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 929        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 930        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 931        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 932        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 933
 934    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 935        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 936            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 937        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 938        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 939
 940    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 941        return ".".join(
 942            self.sql(part)
 943            for part in (
 944                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 945                expression.args.get("db"),
 946                expression.args.get("table"),
 947                expression.args.get("this"),
 948            )
 949            if part
 950        )
 951
 952    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 953        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 954
 955        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 956            join_mark = ""
 957            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 958
 959        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 960
 961    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 963        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 964        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 965        return f"{position}{this}"
 966
 967    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 968        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 969        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 970        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 971        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 972        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 973        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 974        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 975        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 976
 977        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 978            kind = ""
 979
 980        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 981
 982    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 984        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 985        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 986
 987    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 989        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 990            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 991        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 992            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 993        else:
 994            persisted = ""
 995        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 996
 997    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 998        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 999
1000    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1001        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1002            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1003        else:
1004            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1005
1006        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1007
1008    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1009        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1010    ) -> str:
1011        this = ""
1012        if expression.this is not None:
1013            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1014            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1015
1016        start = expression.args.get("start")
1017        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1018        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1019        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1020        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1021        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1022        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1023        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1024        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1025        cycle_sql = ""
1026
1027        if cycle is not None:
1028            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1029            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1030
1031        sequence_opts = ""
1032        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1033            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1034            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1035
1036        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1037        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1038
1039        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1040
1041    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1042        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1043    ) -> str:
1044        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1045        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1046        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1047
1048    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1049        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1050    ) -> str:
1051        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1052
1053    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1054        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1055
1056    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1057        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1058
1059    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1060        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1061        if desc is not None:
1062            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1063        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1064
1065    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1067        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1068        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1069        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1070        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1071        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1072        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1073        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1074
1075    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1076        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1077
1078    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1079        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1080        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1081        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1082        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1083
1084        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1085
1086        properties_sql = ""
1087        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1088            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1089        ):
1090            properties_sql = self.sql(
1091                exp.Properties(
1092                    expressions=[
1093                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1094                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1095                    ]
1096                )
1097            )
1098
1099            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1100                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1101            elif not self.pretty:
1102                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1103                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1104
1105        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1106        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1107
1108        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1109        if expression_sql:
1110            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1111
1112            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1113                postalias_props_sql = ""
1114                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1115                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1116                        exp.Properties(
1117                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1118                        ),
1119                        wrapped=False,
1120                    )
1121                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1122                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1123
1124        postindex_props_sql = ""
1125        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1126            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1127                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1128                wrapped=False,
1129                prefix=" ",
1130            )
1131
1132        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1133        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1134        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1135
1136        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1137        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1138        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1139
1140        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1141        if clustered is None:
1142            clustered_sql = ""
1143        elif clustered:
1144            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1145        else:
1146            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1147
1148        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1149        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1150            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1151                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1152                sep=" ",
1153                prefix=" ",
1154                wrapped=False,
1155            )
1156
1157        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1158
1159        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1160        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1161            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1162                exp.Properties(
1163                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1164                ),
1165                sep=" ",
1166                prefix=" ",
1167                wrapped=False,
1168            )
1169
1170        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1171        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1172        no_schema_binding = (
1173            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1174        )
1175
1176        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1177        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1178
1179        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1180            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1181        else:
1182            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1183
1184        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1185        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1186
1187    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1188        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1189        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1190        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1191        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1192        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1193        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1194        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1195        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1196        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1197        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1198
1199        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1200        if cache is None:
1201            cache_str = ""
1202        elif cache is True:
1203            cache_str = " CACHE"
1204        else:
1205            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1206
1207        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1208        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1209
1210        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1211
1212    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1214        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1215        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1216        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1217
1218    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1219        style = expression.args.get("style")
1220        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1221        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1222        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1223        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1224        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1225
1226        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1227
1228    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1229        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1230        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1231
1232    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1233        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1234        if with_:
1235            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1236        return sql
1237
1238    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1239        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1240        recursive = (
1241            "RECURSIVE "
1242            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1243            else ""
1244        )
1245        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1246        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1247
1248        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1249
1250    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1251        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1252        if alias:
1253            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1254
1255        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1256
1257        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1258        if materialized is False:
1259            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1260        elif materialized:
1261            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1262
1263        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1264
1265    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1266        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1268        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1269
1270        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1271            columns = ""
1272            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1273
1274        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1275            alias = self._next_name()
1276
1277        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1278
1279    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1281        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1282            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1283        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1284
1285    def hexstring_sql(
1286        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1287    ) -> str:
1288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1289        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1290
1291        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1292            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1293        ):
1294            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1295            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1296            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1297            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1298
1299        if not is_integer_type:
1300            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1301            if binary_function_repr:
1302                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1303                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1304            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1305                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1306                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1307
1308        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1309
1310    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1313            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1314        return this
1315
1316    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1318        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1319
1320        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1321            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1322            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1323        else:
1324            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1325            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1326
1327        if escape:
1328            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1329            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1330        else:
1331            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1332            escape_sql = ""
1333
1334        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1335            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1336
1337        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1338
1339    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1340        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1341        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1342
1343    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1346        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1347        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1348
1349    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1350        nested = ""
1351        values = ""
1352        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1353
1354        type_value = expression.this
1355        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1356            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1357        else:
1358            type_sql = (
1359                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1360                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1361                else type_value
1362            )
1363
1364        if interior:
1365            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1366                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1367                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1368                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1369                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1370                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1371            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1372                nested = f" {interior}"
1373            else:
1374                nested = f"({interior})"
1375
1376        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1377        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1378            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1379            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1380        ):
1381            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1382
1383        return type_sql
1384
1385    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1386        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1387        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1388        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1389        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1390
1391    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1392        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1393        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1394        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1395        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1396        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1397        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1398        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1399        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1400        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1401        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1402        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1403        if self.RETURNING_END:
1404            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1405        else:
1406            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1407        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1408
1409    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1410        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1411        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1412        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1413        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1414        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1415        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1416        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1417        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1418        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1419        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1420        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1421        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1422        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1423        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1424        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1425
1426    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1427        op_type = type(expression)
1428        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1429
1430        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1431        if (
1432            distinct is False
1433            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1434            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1435        ):
1436            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1437
1438        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1439
1440        if distinct is None:
1441            distinct = default_distinct
1442            if distinct is None:
1443                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1444
1445        if distinct is default_distinct:
1446            kind = ""
1447        else:
1448            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1449
1450        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1451        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1452
1453    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1454        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1455            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1456            order = expression.args.get("order")
1457
1458            if limit or order:
1459                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1460                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1461                )
1462
1463                if limit:
1464                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1465                if order:
1466                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1467                return self.sql(select)
1468
1469        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1470        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1471
1472        while stack:
1473            node = stack.pop()
1474
1475            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1476                stack.append(node.expression)
1477                stack.append(
1478                    self.maybe_comment(
1479                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1480                    )
1481                )
1482                stack.append(node.this)
1483            else:
1484                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1485
1486        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1487        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1488        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1489
1490    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1491        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1492        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1493        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1494        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1495        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1496        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1497        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1498
1499    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1500        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1501        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1502        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1503        if not with_ties and rows:
1504            with_ties = " ONLY"
1505        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1506
1507    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1508        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1509            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1510            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1511            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1512
1513        agg = expression.this
1514        agg_arg = agg.this
1515        cond = expression.expression.this
1516        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1517        return self.sql(agg)
1518
1519    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1520        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1521            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1522            return ""
1523
1524        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1525
1526    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1527        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1528        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1529        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1530        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1531        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1532        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1533        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1534        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1535        if include:
1536            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1537        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1538        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1539        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1540        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1541        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1542        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1543
1544        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1545
1546    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1547        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1548        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1549        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1550        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1551        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1552        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1553        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1554
1555        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1556
1557        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1558        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1559
1560    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1561        text = expression.name
1562        lower = text.lower()
1563        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1564        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1565        if (
1566            expression.quoted
1567            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1568            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1569            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1570        ):
1571            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1572        return text
1573
1574    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1575        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1576        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1577            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1578
1579        return text
1580
1581    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1582        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1583        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1584            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1585        return text
1586
1587    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1588        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1589        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1590        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1591        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1592        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1593
1594    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1595        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1596        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1597
1598    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1599        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1600        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1601
1602    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1603        root_properties = []
1604        with_properties = []
1605
1606        for p in expression.expressions:
1607            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1608            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1609                with_properties.append(p)
1610            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1611                root_properties.append(p)
1612
1613        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1614        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1615
1616        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1617            with_props = " " + with_props
1618
1619        return root_props + with_props
1620
1621    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1622        if properties.expressions:
1623            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1624        return ""
1625
1626    def properties(
1627        self,
1628        properties: exp.Properties,
1629        prefix: str = "",
1630        sep: str = ", ",
1631        suffix: str = "",
1632        wrapped: bool = True,
1633    ) -> str:
1634        if properties.expressions:
1635            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1636            if expressions:
1637                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1638                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1639        return ""
1640
1641    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1642        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1643
1644    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1645        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1646        for p in properties.expressions:
1647            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1648            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1649                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1650            else:
1651                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1652
1653        return properties_locs
1654
1655    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1656        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1657            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1658        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1659
1660    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1661        property_cls = expression.__class__
1662        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1663            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1664
1665        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1666        if not property_name:
1667            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1668
1669        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1670
1671    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1672        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1673            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1674            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1675
1676            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1677            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1678                like = f"({like})"
1679
1680            return like
1681
1682        if expression.expressions:
1683            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1684
1685        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1686        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1687
1688    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1689        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1690        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1691        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1692
1693    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1694        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1695        local = expression.args.get("local")
1696        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1697        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1698        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1699        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1700        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1701
1702    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1703        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1705        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1706
1707    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1708        if expression.args.get("default"):
1709            property = "DEFAULT"
1710        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1711            property = "ON"
1712        else:
1713            property = "OFF"
1714        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1715
1716    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1717        if expression.args.get("no"):
1718            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1719        if expression.args.get("default"):
1720            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1721
1722        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1723        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1724
1725    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1726        default = expression.args.get("default")
1727        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1728        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1729        if default or minimum or maximum:
1730            if default:
1731                prop = "DEFAULT"
1732            elif minimum:
1733                prop = "MINIMUM"
1734            else:
1735                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1736            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1737        units = expression.args.get("units")
1738        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1739        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1740
1741    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1742        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1743        always = expression.args.get("always")
1744        default = expression.args.get("default")
1745        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1746        never = expression.args.get("never")
1747
1748        if autotemp is not None:
1749            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1750        elif always:
1751            prop = "ALWAYS"
1752        elif default:
1753            prop = "DEFAULT"
1754        elif manual:
1755            prop = "MANUAL"
1756        elif never:
1757            prop = "NEVER"
1758        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1759
1760    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1761        no = expression.args.get("no")
1762        no = " NO" if no else ""
1763        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1764        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1765        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1766        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1767        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1768
1769    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1770        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1771            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1772        if expression.this:
1773            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1774            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1775            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1776
1777        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1778        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1779        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1780
1781    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1783
1784        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1785        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1786            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1787        else:
1788            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1789
1790        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1791
1792    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1793        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1794        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1795        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1796        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1797        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1798        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1799        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1800
1801    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1802        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1803        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1804        statistics_sql = ""
1805        if statistics is not None:
1806            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1807        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1808
1809    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1811        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1812        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1813        data_consistency = (
1814            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1815        )
1816        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1817        retention_period = (
1818            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1819        )
1820
1821        if this:
1822            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1823        else:
1824            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1825
1826        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1827
1828        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1829
1830    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1831        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1832        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1833
1834        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1835            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1836        else:
1837            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1838
1839        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1840        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1841        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1842        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1843        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1844        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1845        if is_function:
1846            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1847        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1848
1849        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1850        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1851        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1852        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1853        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1854        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1855        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1856        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1857
1858        if self.RETURNING_END:
1859            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1860        else:
1861            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1862
1863        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1864        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1865        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1866        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1867
1868        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1869        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1870
1871        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1872        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1873
1874    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1875        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1876
1877    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1878        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1879        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1881        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1882        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1883
1884    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1885        return expression.name
1886
1887    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1888        return expression.name
1889
1890    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1891        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1892
1893        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1894        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1895
1896        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1897        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1898        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1899
1900        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1901        if expressions:
1902            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1903            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1904
1905        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1906        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1907
1908    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1909        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1910
1911    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1912        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1913        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1914        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1915        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1916        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1917        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1918        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1919        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1920        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1921        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1922        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1923        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1924        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1925
1926    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1927        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1928
1929    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1930        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1931        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1932        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1933        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1934
1935    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1936        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1937        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1938        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1939        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1940
1941    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1942        return ".".join(
1943            self.sql(part)
1944            for part in (
1945                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1946                expression.args.get("db"),
1947                expression.args.get("this"),
1948            )
1949            if part is not None
1950        )
1951
1952    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1953        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1954        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1955        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1956        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1957        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1958        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1959        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1960        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1961
1962        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1963        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1964            sample_pre_alias = sample
1965            sample_post_alias = ""
1966        else:
1967            sample_pre_alias = ""
1968            sample_post_alias = sample
1969
1970        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1971        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1972        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1973        joins = self.indent(
1974            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1975        )
1976        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1977
1978        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1979        if file_format:
1980            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1981            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1982            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1983
1984        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1985        if ordinality:
1986            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1987            alias = ""
1988
1989        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1990        if when:
1991            table = f"{table} {when}"
1992
1993        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1994        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1995
1996        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1997        if rows_from:
1998            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1999
2000        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2001
2002    def tablesample_sql(
2003        self,
2004        expression: exp.TableSample,
2005        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2006    ) -> str:
2007        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2008        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2009        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2010        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2011        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2012        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2013        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2014        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2015        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2016
2017        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2018        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2019            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2020
2021        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2022        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2023            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2024
2025        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2026        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2027            expr = f"({expr})"
2028
2029        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2030
2031    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2032        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2033        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2034
2035        if expression.this:
2036            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037            if not expressions:
2038                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2039
2040            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2041            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2042            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2043            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2044            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2045            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2046            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2047
2048        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2049        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2050
2051        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2052
2053        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2054        if include_nulls is not None:
2055            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2056        else:
2057            nulls = ""
2058
2059        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2060        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2061        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2062
2063    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2064        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2065        kind = expression.text("kind")
2066        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2067        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2068
2069    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2070        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2071
2072    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2074        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2075        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2076        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2077        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2078        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2079        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2080        if self.RETURNING_END:
2081            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2082        else:
2083            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2084        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2085        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2086
2087    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2088        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2089
2090        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2091        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2092            args = self.expressions(expression)
2093            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2094            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2095            values = (
2096                f"({values})"
2097                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2098                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2099                else values
2100            )
2101            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2102
2103        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2104        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2105        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2106
2107        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2108
2109        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2110            row = tup.expressions
2111
2112            if i == 0 and column_names:
2113                row = [
2114                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2115                ]
2116
2117            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2118
2119        if self.pretty:
2120            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2121            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2122            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2123            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2124            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2125
2126        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2127        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2128        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2129
2130    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2131        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2132
2133    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2134    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2135        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2136        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2137        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2138
2139    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2140        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2141
2142    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2143        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2144        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2145
2146    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2147        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2148        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2149
2150    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2151        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2152        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2153
2154    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2155        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2156        if group_by_all is True:
2157            modifier = " ALL"
2158        elif group_by_all is False:
2159            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2160        else:
2161            modifier = ""
2162
2163        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2164
2165        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2166        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2167        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2168
2169        groupings = csv(
2170            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2171            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2172            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2173            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2174            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2175        )
2176
2177        if (
2178            expression.expressions
2179            and groupings
2180            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2181        ):
2182            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2183
2184        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2185
2186    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2187        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2188        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2189
2190    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2191        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2192        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2193        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2194        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2195        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2196        return start + connect
2197
2198    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2199        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2200
2201    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2202        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2203            side = None
2204        else:
2205            side = expression.side
2206
2207        op_sql = " ".join(
2208            op
2209            for op in (
2210                expression.method,
2211                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2212                side,
2213                expression.kind,
2214                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2215            )
2216            if op
2217        )
2218        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2219        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2220        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2221        using = expression.args.get("using")
2222
2223        if not on_sql and using:
2224            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2225
2226        this = expression.this
2227        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2228
2229        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2230        if exprs:
2231            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2232
2233        if on_sql:
2234            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2235            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2236            if using:
2237                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2238            else:
2239                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2240        elif not op_sql:
2241            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2242                return f" {this_sql}"
2243
2244            return f", {this_sql}"
2245
2246        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2247            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2248
2249        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2250
2251    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2252        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2253        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2254        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2255
2256    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2257        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2258
2259        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2260        if cross_apply is True:
2261            op = "INNER JOIN "
2262        elif cross_apply is False:
2263            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2264        else:
2265            op = ""
2266
2267        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2268
2269    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2271
2272        if expression.args.get("view"):
2273            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2274            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2275            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2276            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2277            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2278            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2279
2280        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2281        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2282        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2283
2284    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286
2287        args = [
2288            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2289            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2290            if e
2291        ]
2292
2293        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2294        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2295        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2296        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2297        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2298
2299        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2300
2301    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2303        value = expression.expression
2304        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2305        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2306        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2307        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2308
2309    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2310        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2311        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2313        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2314        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2315        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2316        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2317        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2318
2319    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2320        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2321        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2322        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2323
2324    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2325        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2326
2327    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2328        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2329            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2330            return ""
2331
2332        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2333        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2334        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2335        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2336
2337        if wait is not None:
2338            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2339                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2340            else:
2341                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2342
2343        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2344
2345    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2346        text = expression.this or ""
2347        if expression.is_string:
2348            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2349        return text
2350
2351    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2352        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2353            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2354            text = "".join(
2355                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2356            )
2357
2358        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2359            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2360        )
2361
2362    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2363        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2364        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2365        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2366        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2367        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2368        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2369        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2370        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2371        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2372        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2373        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2374
2375    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2376        return "NULL"
2377
2378    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2379        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2380
2381    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2384        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2385        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2386
2387    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2388        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2389        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2390        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2391        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2392        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2393        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2394        interpolated_values = [
2395            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2396            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2397            else self.sql(e, "this")
2398            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2399        ]
2400        interpolate = (
2401            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2402        )
2403        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2404
2405    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2406        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2407
2408    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2409        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2410
2411    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2412        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2413
2414    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2415        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2416        asc = not desc
2417
2418        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2419        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2420        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2421        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2422        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2423
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425
2426        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2427        nulls_sort_change = ""
2428        if nulls_first and (
2429            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2430        ):
2431            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2432        elif (
2433            nulls_last
2434            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2435            and not nulls_are_last
2436        ):
2437            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2438
2439        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2440        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2441            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2442            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2443                self.unsupported(
2444                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2445                )
2446                nulls_sort_change = ""
2447            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2448                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2449                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2450            ):
2451                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2452                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2453                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2454
2455                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2456                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2457                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2458                    self.unsupported(
2459                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2460                    )
2461                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2462            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2463                if expression.this.is_int:
2464                    self.unsupported(
2465                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2466                    )
2467                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2468                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2469                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2470                nulls_sort_change = ""
2471
2472        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2473        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2474
2475        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2476
2477    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2478        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2479        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2480
2481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2482
2483        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2484
2485    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2486        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2487        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2488        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2489        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2490        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2491        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2492        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2493        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2494        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2495        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2496        definition_sqls = [
2497            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2498            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2499        ]
2500        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2501        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2502        body = "".join(
2503            (
2504                partition,
2505                order,
2506                measures,
2507                rows,
2508                after,
2509                pattern,
2510                define,
2511            )
2512        )
2513        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2514        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2515        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2516
2517    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2518        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2519
2520        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2521            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2522        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2523            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2524
2525        return csv(
2526            *sqls,
2527            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2528            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2529            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2530            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2531            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2532            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2533            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2534            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2535            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2536            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2537            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2538            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2539            self.options_modifier(expression),
2540            sep="",
2541        )
2542
2543    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2544        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2545        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2546
2547    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2548        return ""
2549
2550    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2551        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2552    ) -> t.List[str]:
2553        return [
2554            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2555            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2556        ]
2557
2558    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2559        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2560        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2561        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2562
2563    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2564        into = expression.args.get("into")
2565        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2566            into.pop()
2567
2568        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2569        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2570        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2571        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2572
2573        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2574        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2575            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2576            limit.pop()
2577        else:
2578            top = ""
2579
2580        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2581
2582        if kind:
2583            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2584                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2585            else:
2586                if kind == "STRUCT":
2587                    expressions = self.expressions(
2588                        sqls=[
2589                            self.sql(
2590                                exp.Struct(
2591                                    expressions=[
2592                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2593                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2594                                        else e
2595                                        for e in expression.expressions
2596                                    ]
2597                                )
2598                            )
2599                        ]
2600                    )
2601                kind = ""
2602
2603        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2604        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2605
2606        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2607        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2608        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2609        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2610        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2611            expression,
2612            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2613            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2614            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2615        )
2616
2617        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2618        if expression.args.get("with"):
2619            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2620            expression.pop_comments()
2621
2622        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2623
2624        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2625            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2626                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2627            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2628                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2629            else:
2630                table_kind = ""
2631            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2632
2633        return sql
2634
2635    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2636        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2637        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2638        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2639
2640    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2641        if expression.expressions:
2642            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2643        return ""
2644
2645    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2646        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2647        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2648        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2649        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2650        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2651        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2652        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2653
2654    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2656        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2657
2658    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2660        kind = expression.text("kind")
2661        if kind:
2662            kind = f"{kind}."
2663        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2664
2665    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2666        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2667
2668    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2669        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2670        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2671        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2672        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2673            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2674
2675            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2676            expression.set("sample", None)
2677
2678        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2679        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2680        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2681
2682    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2683        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2684        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2685
2686    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2687        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2688
2689        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2690        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2691
2692        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2693            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2694                alias.append("columns", offset)
2695
2696        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2697            columns = alias.columns
2698            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2699        else:
2700            alias = self.sql(alias)
2701
2702        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2703        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2704            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2705        else:
2706            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2707                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2708            elif offset:
2709                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2710            else:
2711                suffix = alias
2712
2713        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2714
2715    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2716        return ""
2717
2718    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2719        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2720        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2721
2722    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2723        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2724        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2725        order = expression.args.get("order")
2726        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2727        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2729        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2730
2731        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2732
2733        first = expression.args.get("first")
2734        if first is None:
2735            first = ""
2736        else:
2737            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2738
2739        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2740            return f"{this} {alias}"
2741
2742        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2743        return f"{this} ({args})"
2744
2745    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2746        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2747        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2748
2749    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2750        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2751        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2752        end = (
2753            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2754            or "CURRENT ROW"
2755        )
2756        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2757
2758    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2761        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2762
2763    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2766        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2767        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2768
2769    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2770        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2771    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2772        return apply_index_offset(
2773            expression.this,
2774            expression.expressions,
2775            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2776        )
2777
2778    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2779        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2780        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2781        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2782
2783    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2784        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2785
2786    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2788        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2789            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2790                this = self.wrap(this)
2791            return f"ANY{this}"
2792        return f"ANY {this}"
2793
2794    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2795        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2796
2797    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2799        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2800
2801        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2802            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2803            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2804
2805        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2806
2807        if default:
2808            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2809
2810        statements.append("END")
2811
2812        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2813            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2814
2815        return " ".join(statements)
2816
2817    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2819        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2820        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2821
2822    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2823        order = expression.args.get("order")
2824        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2825        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2826
2827    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2828        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2829        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2830        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2831
2832    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2833        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2834
2835        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2836            func_name = "LTRIM"
2837        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2838            func_name = "RTRIM"
2839        else:
2840            func_name = "TRIM"
2841
2842        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2843
2844    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2845        args = expression.expressions
2846        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2847            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2848
2849        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2850            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2851
2852        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2853            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2854
2855        return args
2856
2857    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2858        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2859
2860        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2861        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2862            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2863
2864        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2865
2866    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2867        return self.func(
2868            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2869        )
2870
2871    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2872        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2873        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2874
2875    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2876        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2877        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2878        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2879        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2880        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2881        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2882        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2883        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2884        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2885
2886    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2887        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2888        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2889        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2890        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2891
2892    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2893        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2894
2895    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2896        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2897        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2898        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2899
2900    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2901        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2902
2903    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2904        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2905
2906        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2907            path = self.escape_str(path)
2908
2909        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2910            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2911
2912        return path
2913
2914    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2915        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2916            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2917            if not callable(transform):
2918                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2919                return ""
2920
2921            return transform(self, expression)
2922
2923        if isinstance(expression, int):
2924            return str(expression)
2925
2926        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2927            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2928            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2929        else:
2930            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2931            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2932
2933        return escaped
2934
2935    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2937
2938    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2939        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2940        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2941
2942        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2943        if unique_keys is not None:
2944            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2945        else:
2946            unique_keys = ""
2947
2948        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2949        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2950        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2951        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2952
2953        return self.func(
2954            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2955            *expression.expressions,
2956            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2957        )
2958
2959    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2960        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2961
2962    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2963        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2964        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2965        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2966        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2967        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2968        return self.func(
2969            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2970        )
2971
2972    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2974        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2975        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2976        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2977        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2978        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2979        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2980        return self.func(
2981            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2982            this,
2983            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2984        )
2985
2986    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2987        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2988        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2989        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2990
2991        if nested_schema:
2992            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2993
2994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2995        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2996        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2997        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2998
2999    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3000        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3001
3002    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3004        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3005        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3006        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3007        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3008        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3009        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3010        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3011        return self.func(
3012            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3013        )
3014
3015    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3017        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3018        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3019        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3020        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3021        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3022
3023    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3025        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3026        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3027        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3028        with_ = (
3029            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3030            if expressions
3031            else ""
3032        )
3033        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3034
3035    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3036        query = expression.args.get("query")
3037        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3038        field = expression.args.get("field")
3039        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3040
3041        if query:
3042            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3043        elif unnest:
3044            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3045        elif field:
3046            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3047        else:
3048            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3049
3050        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3051
3052    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3053        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3054
3055    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3056        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3057        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3058            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3059        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3060
3061        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3062            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3063            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3064
3065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3066        if this:
3067            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3068            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3069
3070        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3071
3072    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3073        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3074
3075    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3077        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3078        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3079        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3080        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3081        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3082
3083    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3084        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3085        parent = expression.parent
3086        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3087        return self.func(
3088            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3089        )
3090
3091    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3092        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3093        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3094
3095    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3096        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3097        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3099        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3100
3101    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3102        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3103
3104    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3105        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3106        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3108
3109    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3110        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3111
3112        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3113        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3114
3115        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3116            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3117        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3118            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3119
3120        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3121
3122    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3124
3125    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3127        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3128        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3129
3130    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3133        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3134
3135    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3138        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3139
3140    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3142
3143    def and_sql(
3144        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3145    ) -> str:
3146        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3147
3148    def or_sql(
3149        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3150    ) -> str:
3151        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3152
3153    def xor_sql(
3154        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3155    ) -> str:
3156        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3157
3158    def connector_sql(
3159        self,
3160        expression: exp.Connector,
3161        op: str,
3162        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3163    ) -> str:
3164        if stack is not None:
3165            if expression.expressions:
3166                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3167            else:
3168                stack.append(expression.right)
3169                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3170                    for comment in expression.comments:
3171                        if comment:
3172                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3173                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3174            return op
3175
3176        stack = [expression]
3177        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3178        ops = set()
3179
3180        while stack:
3181            node = stack.pop()
3182            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3183                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3184            else:
3185                sql = self.sql(node)
3186                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3187                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3188                else:
3189                    sqls.append(sql)
3190
3191        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3192        return sep.join(sqls)
3193
3194    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3195        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3196
3197    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3198        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3199
3200    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3201        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3202
3203    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3204        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3205
3206    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3208
3209    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3211
3212    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3213        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3214        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3215        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3216        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3217        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3218        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3219        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3220        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3221        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3222
3223    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3224        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3225        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3226
3227    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3228        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3229            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3230        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3231
3232    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3233        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3234
3235    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3237        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3238        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3239        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3240        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3241        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3242
3243    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3245        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3246        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3247        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3248        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3249        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3250        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3251        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3252        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3253
3254    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3255        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3256        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3257        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3258        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3259
3260        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3261            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3262
3263        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3264
3265    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3266        return "BEGIN"
3267
3268    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3269        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3270        if chain is not None:
3271            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3272
3273        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3274
3275    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3276        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3277        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3278        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3279
3280    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3282
3283        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3284        if dtype:
3285            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3286            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3287            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3288            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3289            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {self.ALTER_SET_TYPE} {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3290
3291        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3292        if default:
3293            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3294
3295        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3296        if comment:
3297            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3298
3299        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3300        if visible:
3301            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3302
3303        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3304        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3305
3306        if not drop and not allow_null:
3307            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3308
3309        if allow_null is not None:
3310            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3311            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3312
3313        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3314
3315    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3317
3318        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3319        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3320
3321        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3322
3323    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3325        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3326            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3327        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3328
3329    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3330        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3332        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3333        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3334        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3335
3336    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3337        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3338            # Remove db from tables
3339            expression = expression.transform(
3340                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3341            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3343        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3344
3345    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3346        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3347        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3348        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3349        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3350
3351    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3352        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3353        return f"SET {exprs}"
3354
3355    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3356        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3357
3358        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3359            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3360        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3361            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3362        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3363            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3364        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3365            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3366        else:
3367            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3368
3369        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3370        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3371        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3372        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3373        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3374        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3375        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3376        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3377
3378        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3379
3380    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3381        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3382            return self.expressions(
3383                expression,
3384                key="actions",
3385                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3386                skip_first=True,
3387            )
3388        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3389
3390    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3391        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3392        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3393        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3394
3395    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3396        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3397
3398    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3399        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3400
3401        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3402            case = exp.case()
3403            for arg in expression.expressions:
3404                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3405            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3406
3407        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3408
3409        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3410        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3411        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3412
3413    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3414        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3415
3416    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3417        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3418
3419    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3420        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3421        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3422        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3423        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3424
3425    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3426        return self.sql(
3427            exp.Cast(
3428                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3429                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3430            )
3431        )
3432
3433    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3434        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3435            return self.func(
3436                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3437            )
3438        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3439
3440    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3441        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3442
3443        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3444            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3445
3446        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3447            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3448                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3449
3450        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3451            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3452                return self.sql(
3453                    exp.cast(
3454                        l / r,
3455                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3456                    )
3457                )
3458
3459        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3460
3461    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3462        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3463        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3464        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3465
3466    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3467        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3468
3469    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3470        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3471
3472    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3474
3475    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3476        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3477
3478    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3479        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3480
3481    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3482        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3483
3484    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3485        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3486
3487    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3488        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3489
3490    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3491        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3492
3493    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3494        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3495
3496    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3497        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3498
3499    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3500        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3501            return self.sql(
3502                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3503            )
3504        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3505
3506    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3507        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3508
3509    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3510        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3511
3512    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3513        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3514
3515    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3516        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3517
3518    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3519        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3520
3521    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3522        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3523
3524    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3525        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3526
3527    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3528        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3529
3530    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3531        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3532
3533    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3534        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3535
3536    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3537        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3538
3539    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3540        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3541
3542    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3543        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3544
3545    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3546        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3547
3548    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3549        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3550            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3551            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3552
3553        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3554
3555    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3556        this = expression.this
3557        expr = expression.expression
3558
3559        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3560            this, expr = expr, this
3561        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3562            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3563                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3564
3565            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3566
3567        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3568
3569    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3570        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3571        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3572        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3573        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3574        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3575
3576    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3577        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3578        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3579        binary_type = type(expression)
3580
3581        while stack:
3582            node = stack.pop()
3583
3584            if type(node) is binary_type:
3585                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3586                if op_func:
3587                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3588
3589                stack.append(node.right)
3590                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3591                stack.append(node.left)
3592            else:
3593                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3594
3595        return "".join(sqls)
3596
3597    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3598        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3599        if to_clause:
3600            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3601
3602        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3603
3604    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3605        args = []
3606
3607        for key in expression.arg_types:
3608            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3609
3610            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3611                for value in arg_value:
3612                    args.append(value)
3613            elif arg_value is not None:
3614                args.append(arg_value)
3615
3616        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3617            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3618        else:
3619            name = expression.sql_name()
3620
3621        return self.func(name, *args)
3622
3623    def func(
3624        self,
3625        name: str,
3626        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3627        prefix: str = "(",
3628        suffix: str = ")",
3629        normalize: bool = True,
3630    ) -> str:
3631        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3632        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3633
3634    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3635        arg_sqls = tuple(
3636            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3637        )
3638        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3639            return self.indent(
3640                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3641            )
3642        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3643
3644    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3645        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3646
3647    def format_time(
3648        self,
3649        expression: exp.Expression,
3650        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3651        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3652    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3653        return format_time(
3654            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3655            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3656            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3657        )
3658
3659    def expressions(
3660        self,
3661        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3662        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3663        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3664        flat: bool = False,
3665        indent: bool = True,
3666        skip_first: bool = False,
3667        skip_last: bool = False,
3668        sep: str = ", ",
3669        prefix: str = "",
3670        dynamic: bool = False,
3671        new_line: bool = False,
3672    ) -> str:
3673        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3674
3675        if not expressions:
3676            return ""
3677
3678        if flat:
3679            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3680
3681        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3682        result_sqls = []
3683
3684        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3685            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3686            if not sql:
3687                continue
3688
3689            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3690
3691            if self.pretty:
3692                if self.leading_comma:
3693                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3694                else:
3695                    result_sqls.append(
3696                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3697                    )
3698            else:
3699                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3700
3701        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3702            if new_line:
3703                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3704                result_sqls.append("")
3705            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3706        else:
3707            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3708
3709        return (
3710            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3711            if indent
3712            else result_sql
3713        )
3714
3715    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3716        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3717        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3718        if flat:
3719            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3720        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3721
3722    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3723        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3724        if not property_name:
3725            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3726        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3727
3728    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3729        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3730
3731    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3732        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3733
3734    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3736        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3737        expressions = (
3738            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3739        )
3740        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3741
3742    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3744        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3745        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3746
3747    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3748        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3749
3750    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3751        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3752        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3753        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3754        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3755
3756        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3757        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3758            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3759            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3760            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3761            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3762        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3763            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3764                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3765            else:
3766                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3767        else:
3768            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3769        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3770
3771    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3772        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3773
3774    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3775        table = expression.this
3776        table_alias = ""
3777
3778        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3779        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3780            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3781            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3782
3783        this = self.sql(table)
3784        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3785        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3786        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3787
3788        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3789        if returning:
3790            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3791
3792        sep = self.sep()
3793
3794        return self.prepend_ctes(
3795            expression,
3796            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3797        )
3798
3799    @unsupported_args("format")
3800    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3801        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3802
3803    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3804        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3805            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3806            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3807
3808        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3809        if not fmt:
3810            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3811            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3812
3813        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3814
3815    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3817        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3818        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3819        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3820        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3821
3822    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3824        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3825        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3826        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3827
3828    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3829        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3830
3831    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3832        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3833
3834    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3835    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3836        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3837
3838    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3839    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3840        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3841        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3842        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3843        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3844        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3845        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3846        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3847
3848    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3849        return ""
3850
3851    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3852        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3853        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3854        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3855        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3856        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3857
3858    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3860        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3861
3862        if having:
3863            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3864
3865        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3866
3867    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3868        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3869        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3870        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3871        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3872        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3873        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3874        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3875        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3876        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3877        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3878        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3879        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3880        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3881
3882    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3883        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3884        if key_block_size:
3885            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3886
3887        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3888        if using:
3889            return f"USING {using}"
3890
3891        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3892        if parser:
3893            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3894
3895        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3896        if comment:
3897            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3898
3899        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3900        if visible is not None:
3901            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3902
3903        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3904        if engine_attr:
3905            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3906
3907        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3908        if secondary_engine_attr:
3909            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3910
3911        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3912        return ""
3913
3914    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3915        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3916        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3917
3918    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3919        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3920        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3923        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3924        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3925        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3926        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3927        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3928        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3929        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3930
3931    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3932        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3933            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3934
3935        case = exp.Case().when(
3936            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3937            expression.args["true"],
3938            copy=False,
3939        )
3940        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3941        if else_cond:
3942            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3943
3944        return self.sql(case)
3945
3946    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3948        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3949        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3950        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3951        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3952        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3953
3954    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3955        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3956
3957    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3958        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3959
3960    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3961        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3962        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3963        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3964        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3965        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3966        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3967
3968    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3970        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3971        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3972
3973    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3975        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3976        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3977
3978    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3979        arg = expression.this
3980        if not arg.type:
3981            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3982
3983            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3984
3985        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3986            return self.sql(arg)
3987
3988        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3989        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3990
3991    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3992        this = expression.this
3993        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3994
3995        if time_format:
3996            return self.sql(
3997                exp.cast(
3998                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3999                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4000                )
4001            )
4002
4003        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4004            return self.sql(this)
4005
4006        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4007
4008    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4009        this = expression.this
4010        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4011            return self.sql(this)
4012
4013        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4014
4015    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4016        this = expression.this
4017        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4018            return self.sql(this)
4019
4020        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4021
4022    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4023        this = expression.this
4024        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4025
4026        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4027            return self.sql(
4028                exp.cast(
4029                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4030                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4031                )
4032            )
4033
4034        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4035            return self.sql(this)
4036
4037        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4038
4039    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4040        return self.sql(
4041            exp.func(
4042                "DATEDIFF",
4043                expression.this,
4044                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4045                "day",
4046            )
4047        )
4048
4049    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4050        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4051            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4052
4053        unit = expression.text("unit")
4054        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4055            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4056
4057        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4058
4059    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4060        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4061
4062        return self.func(
4063            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4064        )
4065
4066    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4067        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4068            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4069            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4070            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4071            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4072
4073        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4074
4075        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4076        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4077            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4078
4079        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4080
4081    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4082        expression.set(
4083            "expressions",
4084            [
4085                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4086                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4087                else e
4088                for e in expression.expressions
4089            ],
4090        )
4091
4092        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4093
4094    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4095        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4096        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4097
4098        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4099
4100    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4101        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4102        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4103
4104        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4105
4106        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4107        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4108
4109        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4110        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4111
4112        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4113        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4114
4115        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4116        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4117
4118        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4119
4120    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4121    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4122    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4123        to = expression.this
4124        value = expression.expression
4125        style = expression.args.get("style")
4126        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4127        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4128
4129        if not to or not value:
4130            return ""
4131
4132        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4133        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4134            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4135
4136        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4137        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4138
4139        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4140        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4141            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4142
4143            style_value = style.name
4144            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4145            if not converted_style:
4146                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4147
4148            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4149
4150            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4151                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4152            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4153                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4154            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4155                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4156            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4157                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4158
4159        if not transformed:
4160            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4161
4162        return self.sql(transformed)
4163
4164    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4165        this = expression.this
4166        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4167            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4168            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4169
4170        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4171            return f".{this}"
4172
4173        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4174        return (
4175            f"[{this}]"
4176            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4177            else f".{this}"
4178        )
4179
4180    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4181        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4182        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4183
4184    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4185        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4186            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4187
4188            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4189
4190        return expression
4191
4192    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4193        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4194            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4195            mods = sorted(
4196                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4197                key=lambda x: 0
4198                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4199                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4200            )
4201
4202            if mods:
4203                mod = mods[0]
4204                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4205                this.meta["inline"] = True
4206                mod.this.replace(this)
4207                return self.sql(expression.this)
4208
4209            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4210
4211            if agg_func:
4212                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4213
4214        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4215
4216    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4217        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4218        if self.pretty:
4219            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4220        return string
4221
4222    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4223        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4224
4225        if expression.expressions:
4226            upper = option.upper()
4227
4228            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4229            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4230
4231            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4232            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4233            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4234            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4235
4236        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4237
4238        if not value:
4239            return option
4240
4241        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4242
4243        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4244
4245    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4246        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4247        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4248            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4249            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4250            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4251        else:
4252            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4253            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4254            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4255
4256        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4257        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4258
4259        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4260        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4261
4262        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4263        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4264
4265        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4266        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4267
4268        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4269
4270    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4272        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4273
4274        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4275        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4276        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4277        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4278
4279        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4280        params = self.expressions(
4281            expression,
4282            key="params",
4283            sep=sep,
4284            new_line=True,
4285            skip_last=True,
4286            skip_first=True,
4287            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4288        )
4289
4290        if params:
4291            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4292                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4293            elif not self.pretty:
4294                params = f" {params}"
4295
4296        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4297
4298    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4299        return ""
4300
4301    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4302        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4303        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4304        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4305        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4306        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4307
4308        if filter_col or retention_period:
4309            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4310
4311        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4312
4313    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4314        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4315    ) -> str:
4316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4317        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4318        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4319        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4320
4321    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4323        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4324        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4325
4326    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4327        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4328
4329    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4331        expr = expression.expression
4332
4333        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4334            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4335            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4336        else:
4337            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4338
4339        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4340
4341    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4342        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4343            return self.sql(expression.this)
4344
4345        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4346
4347    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4348        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4349        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4350
4351        if lower and upper:
4352            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4353        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4354
4355    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4356        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4357        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4358        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4359        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4360        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4361        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4362
4363        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4364
4365    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4366        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4367
4368        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4369        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4370            fill_pattern = "' '"
4371
4372        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4373
4374    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4375        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4376        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4377
4378    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4379        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4380
4381        parent = expression.parent
4382        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4383            parent = parent.parent
4384
4385        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4386            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4387
4388        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4389            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4390
4391        return self.sql(generate_series)
4392
4393    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4394        exprs = expression.expressions
4395        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4396            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4397        else:
4398            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4399
4400        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4401
4402    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4403        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4404            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4405
4406        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4407        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4408        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4409
4410        if source_tz and timestamp:
4411            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4412                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4413            )
4414
4415        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4416
4417        return self.sql(expr)
4418
4419    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4421        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4422
4423        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4424
4425        if _with is None:
4426            with_sql = ""
4427        elif not _with:
4428            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4429        else:
4430            with_sql = " WITH"
4431
4432        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4433
4434        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4435
4436    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4437        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4438            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4439
4440        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4441        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4442        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4443
4444        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4445        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4446
4447        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4448
4449    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4450        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4451        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4452        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4453        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4454        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4455
4456    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4457        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4458        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4459        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4460        return res
4461
4462    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4463        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4464        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4465        empty = (
4466            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4467            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4468            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4469        )
4470
4471        error = expression.args.get("error")
4472        error = (
4473            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4474            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4475            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4476        )
4477
4478        if error and empty:
4479            error = (
4480                f"{empty} {error}"
4481                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4482                else f"{error} {empty}"
4483            )
4484            empty = ""
4485
4486        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4487
4488        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4489
4490    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4491        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4492        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4493
4494    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4496        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4497
4498        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4499        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4500
4501        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4502        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4503
4504        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4505
4506        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4507
4508    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4509        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4510
4511        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4512        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4513        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4514            parent = expression.parent
4515            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4516                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4517                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4518            else:
4519                this = expression.this
4520                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4521                if this.find(exp.Column):
4522                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4523                    this_sql = (
4524                        self.expressions(this)
4525                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4526                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4527                    )
4528
4529                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4530
4531        return array_agg
4532
4533    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4535        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4536
4537        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4538
4539    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4540        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4541
4542        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4543        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4544
4545        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4546        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4547
4548        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4549
4550        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4551
4552        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4553
4554    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4556        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4557        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4558
4559        return f"{this}{columns}"
4560
4561    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4563
4564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4565        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4566
4567        return f"{kind}{this}"
4568
4569    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4570        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4571        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4572            func = f"*{func}"
4573
4574        return func
4575
4576    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4578        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4579        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4580        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4581        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4582
4583        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4584
4585    @unsupported_args("format")
4586    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4587        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4588
4589    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4590        this = expression.this
4591        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4592
4593        if zone:
4594            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4595            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4596            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4597            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4598                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4599            )
4600
4601        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4602
4603    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4604        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4605            return self.sql(
4606                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4607            )
4608
4609        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4610
4611    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4612        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4613        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4614        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4615        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4616
4617    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4618        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4619            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4620
4621        start_ts = exp.cast(
4622            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4623        )
4624
4625        return self.sql(
4626            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4627        )
4628
4629    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4630        dim = expression.expression
4631
4632        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4633        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4634            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4635                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4636            dim = None
4637
4638        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4639        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4640            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4641
4642        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4643
4644    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4646        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4647        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4648        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4649
4650        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4651
4652    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4654        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4655
4656        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4657
4658    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4660        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4661        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4662        return f"{this}{value}"
4663
4664    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4665        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4666        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4667            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4668
4669        return self.func(
4670            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4671            this_sql,
4672            expression.args.get("time"),
4673            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4674            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4675        )
4676
4677    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4678        return (
4679            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4680        )
4681
4682    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4683        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4684        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4685
4686        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4687        if properties:
4688            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4689
4690        return encode
4691
4692    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4694        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4695
4696        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4697        if column_def:
4698            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4699
4700        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4701        if alias:
4702            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4703
4704        return include
4705
4706    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4707        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4708        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4709
4710    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4711        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4712        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4713        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4714
4715    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4716        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4717    ) -> str:
4718        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4719        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4720
4721        every = expression.args["every"]
4722        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4723            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4724
4725        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4726
4727    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4728        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4729        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4730
4731        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4732
4733    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4734        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4735        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4736        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4737
4738    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4739        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4740        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4741        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4743        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4744        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4745        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4746        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4747
4748    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4750        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4751        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4752        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4753        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4754        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4755        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4756
4757    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4758        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4759        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4760        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4761
4762    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4763        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4764        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4765
4766    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4767        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4769        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4770        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4771        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4772
4773    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4774        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4775        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4776        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4777        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4779        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4780        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4781        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4782        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4783        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4784        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4785        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4786        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4787        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4788        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4789
4790    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4792        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4793        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4794        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4795        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4796        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4797        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4798        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4799        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4800
4801    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4803        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4804
4805    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4807        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4808        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4809        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4810        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4811
4812    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4813        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4814
4815    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4816        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4817        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4818        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4819
4820        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4821        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4822            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4823
4824        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4825
4826    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4827        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4829        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4830        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4831        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4832
4833        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4834
4835        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4836
4837    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4838        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4839        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4840
4841    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4842        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4843
4844    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4845        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4846
4847    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4848        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4849
4850    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4851        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4852        return ""
4853
4854    def put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put) -> str:
4855        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4856        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4858        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
4859        return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"